中国经济转型中的国有企业:不同视角下的制度功能性与可信性
卢荻,韩嘉怡
摘要(Abstract):
中国国有企业的制度特性严重背离西方经济学中个人主义的产权原则。而矛盾之处在于,国有企业却似乎在生产率和盈利能力方面皆表现良好。由此,本文从另一个理论视角出发,对国有企业制度进行考察。本文提出两个核心观点:第一,关于"功能性",长期导向的制度可能有利于提高生产性效率,但可能也会对资源配置效率产生不利影响;第二,关于"可信性",企业的实际绩效取决于制度与更广泛的发展环境之间的适当匹配。因此,我们发现效率属性是处境特定的。关于处境特定性概念的进一步讨论表明,在确定功能性和可信性时,相对效率是连合性而非结构性的。秉持"原生演化和制度经济学"(Original Evolutionary and Institutional Economics)的精神,本文提出,相对效率的属性本身受制于中国当前政治经济环境的特定"社会评估"。
关键词(KeyWords): 中国;国有企业;制度功能性;制度可信性
基金项目(Foundation): 清华大学中国现代国有企业研究院项目“中国国有企业的经济性质和发展趋势”(2018THUISOE 02)的资助
作者(Author): 卢荻,韩嘉怡
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- (1)关于格申克龙后进发展的“赶超”理论的介绍和应用,可参考万提瓦和希克森(Vanteeva and Hickson,2015)。值得注意的是,该理论不仅强调了落后的优势(“后发优势”),即后进发展经济体进口技术的机会,而且强调了国家长期导向性的机构利用此类优势的必然性。
- (2)在一般意义之层面,资源配置效率是指资源的分配在特定时间点上,于现有生产技术环境的约束下,所能满足需求的最大水平之产出。基于资源配置效率的经济增长路径可被设想为一系列时间点,经济体根据该时间点的技术环境以分配其资源,从而取得最大化的产出水平。与此相对,生产性效率是指以增加产出与投入比率的方式来分配资源。基于生产性效率的增长路径意味着产出与投入比率不断增加的过程,即技术进步和相应的生产率增长,尽管经济可能会或可能不会在每个时间点上达到最大可能的产出水平。拉佐尼克(Lazonick,1991,尤其是第5章)对两种不同的效率概念之间的区别做了可能是最精辟的阐述。
- (3)“社会效率”的概念,即与实现社会经济目标相关的整个经济体系之效率,来源于克拉克(Clark,1924)。这一概念的本质,是强调原生演化和制度经济学中的“社会价值”。
- (1)对于主流新自由主义者或市场原教旨主义者,对中国国家主导模式的解释可参见如Fan、Morck和Yeung(2012),李系、刘学文和王勇(Li,Liu and Wang,2012)以及The Economist(2012)。当解读中国时,新古典经济学的传统中也存在着一系列遵循“次优原理”方法,而不是市场原教旨主义方法的研究,见许成钢(Xu,2011)的综述。尽管如此,这部分研究并没有试图将制度分析与结构动态分析结合起来。
- (1)有关这个理论在全球化时代发展的阐述,请参见Djankov、Glaeser和La Porta等(2003)。
- (1)这种市场原教旨主义观点在华盛顿共识(Chang,2007)的政策学说以及资本主义世界更广泛的政治机构(Grabel,1999)中都很明显。
- (2)他继续说道:“可信性,不是关于经济增长和发展的任何理想或预定的制度形式,而是关于它在时间和空间决定背景下的制度功能性”。因此,从这个角度来看,本文认为经济发展作为制度可信性的标准这一点,只是连合性的,而非结构性的。意即,只有在改革时期的特定情况下,中国经济发展的需求才能达到比其他替代需求更高的政治和社会支持水平。相应的,以生产性效率(以及长期承诺、合作、稳定等)为基础的发展模式比以资源配置效率(以及短期主义、竞争、不稳定等)为基础的发展模式更符合社会政治环境。参见本文第六节的详细说明。
- (1)埃尔斯纳强调,在解释制度变迁时,以下是原生演化和制度经济学的核心特征之一(Elsner,2012:2 ):“[制度变迁的结果来自]礼仪主导程度的变化,其中通常会有一个持续的(强制性)礼仪封装(即反向运动后的程度没有变化)或倒退或渐进的制度变化(增加或减少仪式主导程度)。”
- (1)巴里·诺顿(Barry Naughton,1995,chapter 14)对1978~1993年中国国有企业改革进行了清晰而全面的叙述。
- (1)林益民和朱天(Lin and Zhu,2001)详细记载了20世纪90年代中国国有企业的改革。
- (2)根据国务院国有资产监督管理委员会(SASAC)副主任介绍,截至2013年,大多数国有企业仍背负着一系列社会义务,这使得它们无法实现完全商业化。其中一项主要义务是对员工的工作保障和对福祉的长期承担。见黄淑和(2014)。
- (1)2019年8月22日全国工商联发布的2018年度中国非国有企业500强数据,见http://www. acfic.org. cn/zzjg_327/nsjg/jjb/jjbgzhdzt/2019my5bq/2019my5bq_bgbd/201908/t 20190822_138379. html;2018年《财富》世界500强企业的当年数据,见http://www. sasac. gov. cn/n2588025/n2588164/n4437287/c9279024/content. html。
- (1)以所有权为核心的阐述与Woo、Hai和Jin等(1994),Fan和Woo(1996)以及Lardy(1998)等的研究有关。以竞争为核心的阐述与Naughton(1995)、Jefferson和Rawski(1995)等人的研究有关。参见郑毓盛和卢荻的文献综述和批判性文献综合(Cheng and Lo,2002)。
- (1)世界银行(World Bank,1996)曾做出著名断言:“中国的国有工业企业在改革时期仍然是经济的拖累,尽管它们的效率可能正在提高。”此论断与白重恩、李稻葵和王一江(Bai,Li and Wang,1997)的研究相一致,他们认为中国国有企业内在成员的薪酬高于其生产率收益。
- (1)德姆塞茨(Demsetz,1983)提出了这样一个论点,即明确界定的产权对于资源配置效率至关重要。科尔奈明确指出,只有在产权被明确界定的情况下才能避免软预算约束(Kornai,1990)。有关软预算约束的理论和现实(在全球化时代)的更新和更全面的阐述,可参见Kornai、Maskin和Roland(2003)。
- (1)对于后凯恩斯主义关于“国家作为一个减少不确定性的机构”之观点,可见史蒂文·普莱斯曼(Steven Pressman,2006)。而马里亚娜·妈祖卡托(Mariana Mazzucato,2013)则将“变革性导向投资”(即典型的创新投资)概念作为创业型国家的主要任务,这也许是近年来最具影响力的熊彼特主义理论成果。另见詹姆斯·塞菲(James Cypher,2014),可了解现代文献对国家在后进发展中之功用的阐述。
- (2)关于政府功用的发展政策文献将重点放在关于比较优势对抗(CAD)与比较优势跟随(CAF)产业政策的争论上。张夏准认为,以动态递增报酬为特征的行业发展通常需要CAD产业政策。相比之下,林毅夫认为,比较优势的原则足以引导后进发展——只不过作为一个实体,市场经常呈现内在的失败,因此不能总是符合政府通过CAF产业政策来进行干预的原则。因此,双方都同意政府确实可以在发展中发挥创业作用。见林毅夫和张夏准(Lin and Chang,2009)。
- (1)见拉佐尼克和其他学者主编的《中国,一个创新的国家》(Zhou,Lazonick and Sun,2016),它收集了中国高新技术产业发展及国家在其中所谓关键作用的案例研究。本着相同的精神,拉佐尼克(Lazonick2004)有关IT行业的研究,以及迈克尔·雷纳和加里·加德纳(Michael Renner and Gary Gardner,2010)关于高速铁路发展的研究都支持这样的论点,即在中国的经验中,离世界技术前沿越接近,有关行业发展对政府帮助的需求就越多。有关此论点的理论基础,可参阅青木(Aoki,1990,2001)和张夏准(Chang,2007)。
- (2)阿姆斯登(Amsden,1989)始终致力于发展“后进发展的学习范式”,这意味着学习吸收和改进进口技术的能力是后进发展的必要条件,东亚的成功经验就是明证。迈克尔·百思特(Michael Best,1990)将学习能力与不同形式的企业组织(包括工作安排和雇佣关系)联系起来。
- (1)作为对维布伦“借贷价值”概念的补充,亚历山大·埃尔利希(Erlich,1960)和亚历山大·格申克龙(Gerschenkron,1962)均认为,大规模工业化及适当的制度环境——在格申克龙看来是具有长期导向融资和治理的大企业——对技术在后进发展中的活力至关重要。
- (1)卢荻和黎贵才(Lo and Li,2011)明确分析了中国经济增长中结构变化与制度属性之间的相互作用。他们的计量分析结果表明,在大规模、资本深化工业化的背景下,国有企业在生产性效率上往往比非国有企业更有实力,但在获取资源配置效率上存在困难。这一发现与本文的论题是一致的。
- (1)关于世纪之交以来中国社会发展的根本变化,见王绍光(2013)。对于这一时期政策制度体制和劳动就业实际表现的根本变化,请参见李昌徽(Lee,2009)。
- (1)安德鲁·格林(Andrew Glyn,2006)进一步将“黄金时代模式”与“新自由主义全球化模式”进行了比较和对比。拉佐尼克(Lazonick,2009)通过比较他所谓的“旧经济商业模式”和“新经济商业模式”,提供了一个互补性更强、更加微观的研究。这些研究为本文比较所谓“中国式国家主导的社会主义”与新自由主义提供了依据。卢荻(Lo,2016)详细介绍了中国自世纪之交以来对“黄金时代模式”的趋同,和尤其是在2010年之后经济金融化对趋同的系统性破坏作用。
- (1)参见中国国家统计局及《中国统计年鉴》的数据和农民工监测和调查年度报告。值得注意的是,国际比较下,这些生产率、工资率、消费和投资增长趋势与中国在社会发展的主要指标(人类发展、出生时预期寿命等)方面的突出表现一致。无论是短期还是长期,经济和社会发展的表现都与中国陷入重大社会经济危机的观念相去甚远。
- (2)克拉克明确指出(Clark,1924,p. 102):“我们可以描述现有的制度,但如果不清楚替代制度会是什么样的,我们就无从知晓知道它们对人类的影响。”